06yasuoka.indd

4-1 2004 7 * Long-term Foraging Expedition and Subsistence of the Baka in Northwestern Congo Basin: An Example of Pure Foraging Life in Tropical Rain Forests Yasuoka Hirokazu* While Pygmy hunter-gatherers were generally assumed to be the original inhabitants of the central African rain forest, recent studies have proposed the hypothesis that it is impossible to subsist by hunting and gathering alone in the tropical rain forests without some degree of dependence on agricultural products. This hypothesis has been debated among researchers of hunter-gatherer societies in different parts of the world. There have been, however, few studies on this issue that were based on sound data on the actual hunting and gathering life of the forest peoples. This paper examines the possibility of hunting and gathering life in the tropical rain forest, based on the data obtained from participant observation on molongo, a long-term hunting and gathering expedition, among the Baka in southeastern Cameroon. During the two and a half months of the expedition, the Baka subsisted solely on wild food resources, wild yams in particular, although it was during the dry season when food resources are generally thought to be scarce. The sustainability of such a forest life is examined in relation to the abundance and distribution patterns of wild food resources, hunting and gathering technologies, residential patterns and nomadic life style. *, Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University 2004 4 14 2004 7 26 36

1 1.1 Turnbull 1965 Turnbull 1965; 1982; Bahuchet 1993a; 1997 1980 (revisionists) Headland 1987 Bailey 1989 1 km 37

4-1 (molongo) 1.2 2 5,000 Joiris 1998 1950 1961 Joiris 1998 Kitanishi 2003; 2004 1991 Harako 1976; 1982 1995; Kitanishi 1995 Takeda 1996 1991; 2000 1 1991; 2000; Leclerc 2001; Kitanishi 2003; 2004 2002 19 89 km 2 2 1 38

2 (Cephalophus spp.) 1.3 Headland 1987 Bailey 1989 1) Headland 39

4-1 Headland 1987 Wild Yam Question Headland 1987; Bailey et al. 1989 1) Headland 1987 4,000 mm 4,000 mm 1992 Bailey 1989 1,000 mm 18 60 mm 2 (tropical moist forest) Sommer 1976 Bailey Bailey Sommer 40

Human Ecology Bahuchet et al. 1991; Brosius 1991; Dwyer and Minnegal 1991; Endicott and Bellwood 1991; Stearman 1991 (ecological) (evolutionary) Headland 1987 Bailey 1989 41

4-1 Headland 1997 Bailey and Headland 1991 Bailey and Headland 1991 2 Endicott and Bellwood 1991 89 93 15 2,067 kg 77 54 Bahuchet et al. 1991 1.24 ha 1 ha 2 kg Hladik et al. 1984 26 250 km 2 2 Kitanishi 1995; Sato 2001 Mercader et al. 2000 Headland 2 2.1 150 km 2 42

(Zoulabot Ancien) 2 1 400 600 m 25 100 km 1,400 1,600 mm 12 2 yaka 1 (soko ma) 3 11 6 8 soko pekie (Irvingia gabonensis) I. excelsa, Bailonella toxisperma, Anonidium mannii (semi-deciduous forest) Letouzey 1985 Scorodophloeus zenkeri Anonidium mannii, Polyalthia suaveolens Gilbertiodendron dewevrei Hart et al. 1989 6 CFA 50 1994 2003 (Boumba-Bek) (Nki) 1 43

4-1 2 2004 2003 8 35 140 50 Sato 1992; Tsuru 1998 (Dja) 5 km (Lebe) 1 1964 152 Cameroon 1966 2 11 1970 40 km (Boumba) bac 2) 1970 2.2 2001 8 2002 9 2003 1 8 21 2002 2 4 2 2) 2001 (Bek) 2002 4 10 20 44

3 5 4 23 50 2 13 4 27 12 1 2 12 0.5 2 0 Ichikawa 1983 Kitanishi 1995 Kingdon 1997 (Herbier National) Dounias 1993 Garmin e-treck GPS Centre Geographique National 20 1 10 87 2002 10 12 2003 1 5 1 2 3 2 16 3 38 2003 8 10 1 1 1 Leung 1968 45

4-1 3 3.1 50 km Leclerc 2001 (sendo) (ngbasa) (maka) 4 2 3 1 Leclerc 1 1 (bala a waiya) (gba) 20 50 km 10 10 20 km 2004 46

2 1 2002 2 4 20 50 2 2001 10 2003 8 100 578 1024 1 38 45 1 47

4-1 5 70 40 60 1 8 10 40 49 29 9 7 45 38 1 50 100 1 3.2 3.2.1 (waiya) 1 48

10 20 km 2 2.4 n 45 10 5 58 17 natte ; ebo 1 10 2 10 30 m 3 1 1 50 100 2 3 4 2 2 3 1 ngendi; Cephalophus callipygus ngbomu; C. dorsalis mongala/mie; C. leucogaster monjumbe; C. nigrifrons (pame; Potamochoerus porcus) (bemba; C. silvicultor) (dengbe; C. monticola) (mboke; Atherurus africanus) (mboko; Syncerus 49

4-1 caffer) (mbongo; Tragelaphus euryceros) 4 500 1,000 Fcfa 655.957 Fcfa 1 euro, (kelepa; Smutsia gigantea) 1 10 kg Ichikawa 1991 3.2.2 (ngali) (karabin) (loli) 1 12,000 Fcfa (ya; Loxodonta africana cyclotis) 2 1 (sala) grande chasse big hunting 1 1 2 20 6.9 2.2 25 (tuma) 10 50

10 2001 10 2003 8 38 1 1 2 1 bai 1 2 Tsuru 1998 (mokopolo) 2 3 petite chasse small hunting Leclerc 2001 kalu; Colobus guereza tamba; Cercocebus agilis gada; Lophocebus albigena koi; Cercopithecus nictitans 500 Fcfa 3.2.3 (benga) 51

4-1 1991 14 3 4 4 10 6 5 2 1 2 2 1 (bambe; Varanus sp.) (mokakele; Osteolaemus sp.) (meke; Python sp.) (boma; Bitis sp.) (bolo) Harako 1976 6 4 10 2 Joiris 1998 52

10 3.2.4 (kukuma) 50 55 1 20 2 (mbano) 20 1 3 20 2002 4 20 25 5 20 (yo) (ndolo) (libei) 53

4-1 3.3 3.3.1 (noa) (ngbala) (head) Dounias 1993; 2001 (paracultivation) giving environment Bird-David 1990 15 17 (Dioscorea spp.) 2 (Dioscoreophyllum spp.) Hladik and Dounias 1993; Dumont et al. 1994; Hamon et al. 1995 Dounias 2001 3 (sapa; Dioscorea praehensilis) (esuma; D. semperflorens) (ba; D. mangenotiana) (keke; D. burkilliana) (kuku; D. minutiflora) (baloko; D. smilacifolia) (njakaka; D. sp.) (ngbi; Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii) Dounias 1993 (sende; D. hirtiflora) (boli; D. sp.) (pange; D. sp.) (bilango; Dioscoreophyllum sp.) Dounias 2001 11 3 1 3) p f f 54

1 30 kg Dounias 2001 ndondo; Dounias 1993 (head) 1 5 kg 10 kg (head) Dounias 2001; Sato 2001 Hladik 1984 waiting phase 1 1 (ngbi) 3.3.2 soko pekie 6 8 8 ha 10 cm 215 4,088 23 671 (mabe; Bailonella toxisperma (bambu; Gambeya lacourtiana) (pekie; Irvingia gabonensis) (gangendi/payo; Irvingia excelsa) (kombele/payo; Irvingia robur) (solia; Irvingia grandifolia) (bokoko; Klainedoxa gabonensis) (ngoyo; Trichoscypha abut) (gongu; Antrocryon klaineanum) (gimba; Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) (ngata; Myrianthus 55

4-1 arboreus) (gobo; Ricinodendron heudelotii) (kana; Panda oleosa) (mbe; Anonidium manii) (tokomboli; Chytranthus atroviolaceus) (kaso; Tetracarpidium conophorum) (koko; Gnetum spp.) (njii; Aframomum spp.) (tondo) (mbila; Elaeis guineensis) (tulu) 6 8 soko pekie soko mabe 2001 2002 2003 (leka) (la) 6 1 20 30 kg 1 2 3 (gie) 2 (kingili) (mita mabe) 1 2 56

2 1 1 1.5 kg 500 Fcfa 1 1,000 Fcfa (tondo) 1 250 500 Fcfa 3.3.3 (libenji) (pendi) (yenda) (yanji) (yalo) ngili/mobabo/gba (kopa) Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (mokobe) (tongia; Apis adansonii) (poki) (Meliponinae) (dandu, mopapele, molengi, pende, etc.) (dandu) (mbalaka; Pentaclethra macrophylla) (mongamba; Dichostemma glaucescens) (mobay; Pericopsis elata) 2 (gbado; Triplochiton scleroxylon) (boso; Petersianthus macrocarpus) (nguluma; Duboscia macrocarpa) (boyo; Entandrophragma cylindricum) (kaanga; Entandrophragma candolei) (taku; Bridelia grandis) (sengi; 57

4-1 Uapaca spp.) (kopo) kopo gbado 3 (peke; Raphia spp.) (pose kpokolo) (bandi) (mbembe) 3.4 2 3 1 (nguma) 2 3 10 kg (gbigbi; Malapterurus electricus) 5 cm 10 cm (si) (kaanji) (njenje) 10 Stearman 1991 keystone resource (mongombo; Millettia sanagana) (mboloa; Diospyros canaliculata) (asama; Turraeanthus africanus) 30 km 40 km 3.5 58

1 2 (gbie) (ndo; Musa spp.) (boma; Maniot esculenta) (jabuka) (wono; Arachis hypogaea) (mbombo; Zea mays) (langa; Xanthosoma sagitifolium) (mebuta; Ipomoea batatas) (alamba; Capsicum annuum) timekuma; bala; (manio) 3.6 1,000 2,000 Fcfa (ngongo; Megaphrynium macrostachyum) (bili; Marantochloa sp.) (bungu) 1 1,000 Fcfa 2 3 4 4.1 12 2001 12 3 2 59

4-1 2 13 5 km 3 2 (Honji) 2 6 1 7 1 5 km (Jalope) 1 (Mongungu) 43 8 24 2 1 3 1 1 73 74 3 3 2002 60

29 4) 19 89 17 22 12 14 2 12 27 9 1 8 3 2 1 50 Sato 1992; Tsuru 1998 2.4 10 89 4.2 8 (mongulu) 1 5 10 7 4 2 4 km 3 km 3 1 2 3 1 4 2 3 km 4) 2.1 35 2003 8 2002 2 2 8 5 1 61

4-1 4 30 40 km 2 6 km 6 km 1 (extensive) (intensive) 4.3 4.3.1 43 41 81 64 62

1,930 kg 65 9 2 17 12 5 200 6 250 12 26 300 1 25 1 1 9 16 15 16 16 18 2 80 3 km 41 100 2 3 9 4 20 (kg)* (kg) ** 65 15.9 1034.3 157 Cephalophus callipygus ngendi 38 16.3 619.4 269 C. dorsalis ngbomu 21 15.9 333.9 487 C. leucogaster mongala/mie 5 13.6 68.0 2045 C. nigrifrons monjumbe 1 13.0 13.0 Cephalophus silvicultor bemba 9 35.8 322.2 1136 Potamochoerus porcus pame 3 32.6 97.8 Pan troglodytes seko 3 31.0 93.0 Tragelaphus euryceros mbongo 2 71.8 143.6 Hyemoschus aquaticus geke/akolo 2 12.1 24.2 Felis aurata ebie 2 7.2 14.4 Cephalophus monticola dengbe 2 3.7 7.4 Syncerus caffer mboko 1 141.7 141.7 Smutsia gigantea kelepa 1 26.7 26.7 Panthera pardus sua 1 25.1 25.1 91 1930.4 112 * ** 10,223 1 1 5 63

4-1 4.3.2 19 36 21 3 11 4 26 2.2 1 66.5 1 1 605 g 60 363 g 74 615 g 369 g 3 2 13 4 27 (kg) Potamochoerus porcus pame 4 130 Python sp. meke 1 35 Cephalophus silivicultor bemba 1 28 Varanus sp. bambe 1 5 Bitis sp. boma 1 3 Herpestidae spp. nganda 1 1-5 * Atherurus africanus mboke 1 1.5-4 Osteolaemus sp. mokakele 2 10 Tragelaphus euryceros mbongo 1 97 *** Lophocebus albigena gada 1 5 Loxodonta africana cyclotis ya 1 778** **** Kinxys sp. kunda 2 3 Cephalophus dorsalis ngbomu 1 2 Pelusios sp. lende 1 2 Phataginus tricuspis or Uromanis tetradactyla kokolo 1 1 Cephalophus monticola dengbe 1 1 21 1099 * Kingdon 1997 ** *** **** 6 64

4 [kg] 1930 3029 * 48 74 ** 3192 4921 1 [g] 605 363 615 369 1 [kcal]*** 544 553 * 3 11 4 27 48 74 ** 66.5 *** 1 (g) 0.6 100 g 150 kcal Leung 1968 100 g 150 kcal Leung 1968 553 kcal 4 1 1 580 g Ichikawa 1983 680 g Hart and Hart 1986 1.5 Hart 1978; Ichikawa 1983; 1991 1 1 270 g Kitanishi 1995: Appendix 3 1 4.3.3 1 1 5) 5) 100 1 100 100 1 1 65

4-1 112 5 20 km 6 122 14 91 24 691 71 74 1 1 0.18 0.50 1 2.9 2002 4 4.4 5 91 71 691 74 10223 84125 112 122 12 2.7 1 25 72 1 1 0.18 0.50 20 km 6 66

1 1 1.64 kg 85 6 1,786 kcal 6 Leung 1968 Kitanishi 1995 2,339 kcal 6 3 5 4 23 (kg) 1 1 1 1 (g) (kcal)* Dioscorea praehensilis sapa 4519.8 1359.3 1305.0 D. semperflorens esuma 654.6 196.9 189.0 D. mangenotiana ba 61.8 18.6 17.8 D. burkilliana keke 184.7 55.5 53.3 D. minutiflora kuku 22.7 6.8 6.5 Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii ngbi 3.1 0.9 0.9 Panda oleosa kana 14.0 4.0 16.0 Irvingia excelsa gangendi (payo) 10.4 2.9 11.8 I. robur kombele (payo) 0.9 0.2 1.0 (Apis adansonii) poki 146.1** 54.9 128.1 dandu 62.4** 23.4 54.7 tulu 15.7 4.4 1.4 kopo 0.6 0.2 0.1 si 2.6 0.7 0.4 1786.1 * 3335 Leung 1968 Kitanishi 1995 0.8 120 kcal/100 g Panda oleosa Irvingia excelsa 670 kcal/100 g ** 3 20 4 21 67

4-1 76 67 56 7 2 6 7 2 12 2 7 * 66 39 14 2 2 3 10 1 4 4 3 8 11 4 64 187 1 1 17 51 22 8 54 48 8 22 17 6 2 2 4 11 8 24 8 36 13 57 51 1 3 25 50 18 40 36 24 69 0 13 12 3 8 ** 100 36 89 293 3 4 7 8 3 5 7 8 * 4 6 ** 68

4.5 10 10 4 8 5 11 3 15 4 5 10 50 km 8 10 30 km 6 3 8 10 (km) 20-30 2 11 20 5 15 15 5 12 15-30 5 6 15-30 10 7 30-50 10 4 Ngato 45 10 10 40-60 10 8 40-45 10 5 30-35 10 6 12 10 30 km 5 Ngato 69

4-1 5 10 8 1 87 15 10 15 57 60 80 45 6 6 40 2,100 km 80 3,400 2 km 60 30 2 900 1,200 km 2 70

6 5 km 40 (nea; Strophanthus gratus) 71

4-1 50 2 (yaka) 1 30 soko pekie: 6 7 10 15 30 30 km (Lingondo) 30 WWF WWF 1 WWF 1998: 25 5 5.1 73 74 89 72

Bailey 1989 Hart and Hart 1986 Hart and Hart 5 Ricinodendron heudelotti Bahuchet 1991 Hart 12 2 4 Dounias 2001 11 3 4 4 3 km 10 km 11 73

4-1 11 4 100 Dounias 1993; 2001 Dounias 2001 140 1,000 3,000 km 2 0.05 0.1 km 2 89 40 km 2 1 80 km 2 12.5 37.5 1 1 5.2 Hart and 74

Hart 1986 Ricinodendron heudelotti Anonidium manii Bailonella toxisperma 100 km 8 9 (manja) 5.8 kg/ha Sato 2001 73 8 Dounias 2001 1,700 ha 17 km 2 1.64 kg 100 2 6) 89 2.4 10 Dounias 2001 1 6) 5.2 ha 1,000 km 2 75

4-1 60 100 Ichikawa 1978; Bahuchet 1985 1950 Joiris 1998 1 5.3 76

(pene) (pote) 100 1 113 91 71 Tanno 1977; 1982; Hart and Hart 1986 1995; Kitanishi 1995 Kitanishi 1995 Harako 1976 83 100 56 78 9 52 96 Kitanishi 1995 7 19 5 14 1994 16 13 10 kg 10 30 kg Ichikawa 1983 6.3 kg 21.2 kg 77

4-1 Bahuchet 1993b 1 WWF 1998 150 km Fimbel et al. 2000 Hart 2000 Noss 2000 10 12 20 km 2 3 9 km 2 3 km 2 5 15 km 2 78

9 79 * 42 78 11 20 54 Harako 1976 66 52 39 31 126 Tanno 1977 98 69 25 18 142 Ichikawa 1983 23 96 1 4 24 Kitanishi 1995 112 69 46 28 162 1995 440 75 64 11 70 589 Noss 2000 4 10 18 46 7 5 39 Kitanishi 1995 37 5 574 73 782 38 31 45 36 124 Noss 2000 14 38 16 43 4 37 1990 60 47 29 23 16 127 1994 * 10 Cephalophus monticola Cephalophus callipygus; C. dorsalis; C. leucogaster; C. nigrifrons Atherurus africanus Hyemoschus aquaticus Cephalophus silivicultor Potamochoerus porcus 10 (No./km 2 ) (kg/km 2 ) (No./km 2 ) (kg/km 2 ) (No./km 2 ) (kg/km 2 ) 11.7 55.0 3.9 73.3 15.6 128.3 Hart 2000* 17.8 83.7 8.7 163.6 26.5 247.3 Hart 2000 14.8-20.4 69.6-95.9 2.4-3.0 45.1-56.4 17.2-23.4 114.7-151.3 Noss 2000** 2.2-3.8 10.3-17.9 5.5-15.1 103.4-285.8 7.7-18.9 113.7-303.7 Fimbel et al. 2000*** 0.4-2.3 1.9-10.8 5.3-10.0 99.6-188.0 5.7-12.3 101.5-198.8 WWF 1998**** * Hart 2000: 132 10 km ** Noss 2000: 298 5-10 km, 10-15 km *** Fimbel et al. 2000: 365 10-20 km 20-30 km 30 km **** WWF 1998: 34-35 Boumba-Bek Corridor forest Nki forest 4.7 kg 18.8 kg Koster and Hart 1988

4-1 Sato 1983; Takeda 1996 1995 1995 100 2 1 1 605 g 363 g 20 9 7) 434 1990 112 91 11 7 18 (r) 0.29 Noss 2000 5.3 10.0 km 2 WWF 1998: 34-35 0.36 0.68 km 2 7) 211 1 1 2 105 124 30 38 1994 80

8) 40 km 2 200 400 14.4 27.2 65 1/6 1/3 2 3 3 6 6 1 Hart and Hart 1986 Headland 1987 1992 1,500 mm 8) (r) 1.34 10 0.2 Robinson and Redford 1991 81

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